“Understanding Poetry”
Chapter Two (The Objective
Approach to Poetry)
The title of this chapter suggests
that there is an objective standard for determining the quality of poetry. An
objective standard is one that exists independently from one’s own mind or
opinions. For an example, if I want to measure one foot, I do not just draw a
line and call it “one foot.” I must take an objective standard, in this case, a
ruler. I can then measure the line accurately. Everyone will recognize my line
as being one foot because I used the accepted standard. It makes not a bit of
difference that I do not think that it is one foot or that I think that the
one-foot length should be a different measure. I can try to change the
standard, but I have to convince everyone else to accept my standard over the
accepted one.
On the other hand, you have often
heard that “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.” This standard suggests that
every individual mind and soul is the final authority as to what is beautiful and
what is not. Therefore, there would be as many definitions of beauty as there
are human beings in this present world. However, I am not of such an opinion.
Our God created a universe of order. Everything in life points to precision and
order. Mathematics, physics, biology, and music reflect a structure that allows
for predictability. Even language has an ordered structure; otherwise, the
study of grammar would be a most senseless endeavor.
So it is with poetry. A poem should
not be seen as an ambiguous writing where millions of different interpretations
are possible. Also, the greatness of a poem is not left to the whims and preferences
of individual readers. I find it amusing whenever a student remarks that he
thinks a particular poem is “stupid,” even though the poem has been recognized
by millions as a great poem. When I ask him why he dislikes the poem, I receive
a response that is either, “I don’t know; I just don’t like it,” or “I can’t
understand it.” But judging poetry is like anything else: you must have some knowledge
about the subject before you can offer an intelligent opinion. If I were to ask
you to give me your opinion about the strength and durability of a bridge that
we were going to build across a river, you would be unable to tell me what I
need to know unless you are familiar with the engineering required to construct
a bridge. I am not saying that you should like every classical piece of
literature or poetry. However, you should at least make a concentrated effort
to understand why people throughout the years have considered certain works to
have enduring value.
As you have read in chapter one, the
key to an appreciation of literature and poetry is understanding the work. It
is paramount that you first understand the poem before you can evaluate whether
the poem is a “good one” or a “stupid one.” This especially means that if you do
not know the meaning of a word, look the word up in the dictionary. Always keep
a dictionary by you whenever you read poetry.
Frankly, much of what passes off as
poetry is not poetry at all. Beware of calling any verse “poetry” that is
sentimental (for an example, greeting cards), that is didactic (primarily
teaches a moral or a lesson), or that is rhetorical (using bombastic language
and cliches). While these may have rhyme and rhythm, these verses fail to offer
anything new or fresh. Great poetry expresses human experiences in
unconventional ways. Also, do not fall into the trap of trying to find a moral
lesson in every poem you read. Chances are there is none. You will save
yourself a lot of frustration by rejecting the idea that poetry contains a
hidden moral that is bitter to the taste, only to be made sweet by pleasant
sounds and rhyme.
Edgar Allan Poe stated that the sole
domain for beauty is in poetry. Of course Poe expands the definition of beauty
that could also include things that may not be so beautiful, such as the death of
a young woman. Nevertheless, if you wish to convey information that teaches and
edifies, then prose is the best method to communicate your ideas to others.
However, beauty cannot be described like a mathematical formula; it must be
experienced. Therefore, good poetry is about meaningful experiences. The poem
does not describe to us the experience, but rather allows us to participate in
the experience. Good poetry challenges our souls, not just our intellect. Of
the two following poems, which one is the better one?
The Eagle
I saw the golden eagle glide
Across on every windy breath;
Majestic with outstretched wings,
Like stretched out arms in
shameful death.
Above he hovered o’er his realm—
A lord who views his earth below—
Reminding me of heaven’s King,
From Whom all wondrous pleasures
flow.
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The Eagle
He clasps the crag with crooked
hands;
Close to the sun in lonely lands,
Ringed with the azure world, he
stands.
The wrinkled sea beneath him
crawls;
He watches from his mountain
walls,
And like a thunderbolt he falls.
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So, how do we determine the good
from the bad, and the great from the good? First, determine the main purpose of
the poem. By determining the purpose of the poem, you will be trying to understand
the poem. Make sure that you avoid the common mistake that many readers make by
assuming that the poet is talking about himself in the poem. More often than
not, the narrator of the poem is someone other than the poet. By knowing who
the speaker is, the purpose of the poem may be easier to see. In the first
poem, “The Eagle,” the speaker is someone who sees the flight of an eagle that
reminds him of Christ. The second poem is narrated by a person who tells us a
lot about an eagle. Both poems have a purpose to relate an experience
concerning eagles.
This brings us to the second point,
that is, has the purpose been accomplished? One can argue that both poems
fulfill the purpose, which is to convey something about eagles, allowing the reader
to experience a new insight into life. However, which poem does it more
effectively? The first poem uses bland expressions and the imagery of the
outspread wings of a bird representing the cross of Christ has become trite.
There is nothing really fresh about the poem and it borders on sentimentality,
even though the subject matter is lofty. On the other hand, the second poem uses
interesting word combinations such as “crooked hands,” “ringed with the azure
world,” and “wrinkled sea.” The first poem offers some skill with literary
devices, but the second uses alliteration nicely, has an interesting simile,
and provides a good contrast in lines three and six; that is, “stands” and
“falls.” Also, there is a contrast in stanza one and two. The first stanza is centered
on the eagle’s exalted position. The second stanza describes the dominions
below. In stanza one, “sun” is mentioned, while in stanza two the “thunderbolt”
contrasts with sun.
To really differentiate great poetry
from good poetry, we must ask ourselves another question: Is the purpose of the
poem very important? Even though a poem may achieve its purpose, the purpose
may not be all that important. Many poems are written in order to commemorate
an event, such as a battle. The poem may be good in that it allows us to
experience something new, but it may not be great. Years ago, I was told that
small minds discuss people, average minds discuss events (like the weather and
current news), but great minds discuss ideas. So it is with good and great
poetry. A good poem will help you to experience a freshly fallen snow, or to
soar with an eagle, or to discover something new about a common object or
event. But truly great poetry centers of universal themes on human existence,
like love and death.
In short, great poetry should affect
the soul as well as the
mind, the imagination as well as the intellect. Poetry should not be
seen merely as a diversion for pleasure, although it can be. More importantly, poetry
should cause a new awareness about yourself and about humans in general. What
makes the Psalms of the Bible poetical is the fact that these Scriptures
communicate the experience of humanity—fear, joy, praise, love, and hope.
Therefore, good poetry is not for
the lazy. I mean this in two senses. First, good poetry is written by careful
poets, not by lazy ones. And second, the reader must have some genuine character
that includes the traits of patience and consideration. Anyone can write
doggerel, such as “Roses are red; violets are blue; / Sugar is sweet and so are
you.” But true genius with verse requires great care and a better than normal
appreciation for words. Poetry cannot be appreciated with one or even two
readings. The nature of good poetry requires patience on the part of the reader
who thoughtfully reads and spends extended periods of time to muse over the
words. The selections in this book are considered good poetry by people
throughout many generations. Once again, you may not personally like some of
the selections. But do try to determine why these poems have endured the test
of time and are still meditated over and enjoyed by millions of people even
today.
Chapter Three (Meaning
in Poetry)
Many are the disappointed readers who think that poetry
contains some obscure or even occult meaning. Please learn the following lesson
well: most poems mean exactly what the
words say. Sometimes
a poet may employ a symbol as figurative language. But generally, a poem ought
to be understood in the plain sense of the words.
This may be an eye-opener to you.
Poets are not trying to hide secret meanings within the lines of their verse.
The poet is trying to write about an experience for you to enjoy with him. The
reason why a particular poem appeals to you or me is that the poet succeeded in
allowing us to experience a freshness in life, which tends to become stale and
dull. Life is not a twenty-fourhour party. Your life is mainly composed of
day-to-day obligations and duties and is rather routine. You sleep, you eat,
you work, you rest; then you sleep again only to repeat the cycle. I am not
saying that you cannot enjoy yourself while you eat or work, but you are in a
routine that can become monotonous.
You will naturally be inclined to
enjoy and to readily accept poems with which you can relate. If you have ever
seen a field of daffodils in springtime, you will love poems about daffodils.
If you have been in love, then Shakespeare’s sonnets will undoubtedly strike a
responsive chord in your soul. If you are interested in the legends about King
Arthur, then The
Idylls of the King will hold your attention and fascination. The poem is
first and foremost about experiences. Therefore, do not try to read something
into the words of the poet that probably is not there.
Chapter Four (Imagery in Poetry)
If I were to ask you how you
personally experienced the world, you would tell me by your senses. We know
that our senses include seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and feeling. Since
poetry is about experiences, the poet must transfer his emotions to the reader,
or he will fail. While talking with a friend, you are able to communicate your
emotions because your speech is accompanied by body language and intonation in
your voice. However, the poet must work with written words alone. For this
reason, you will find the words in poetry to be more sensuous than in ordinary
conversation.
The way that poetical language
becomes sensuous is through imagery. Generally, poetry will produce “thought pictures.”
However, while poetry relies upon visual imagery, images may be represented by
any of the senses. If I state “hot chocolate,” all sorts of images should come
to mind. My experiences with hot chocolate may be different than yours. Perhaps
you are thinking about the taste, or marshmallows on top in a big mug, or dark,
crisp evenings by a fireplace. On the other hand, maybe you remember the time
when you dropped the hot chocolate on your leg. Different image, right?
The poet will try to use words that
are rich with imagery in order that you can experience what he feels. Usually,
the success of a poem depends upon the ability of the poet to use vivid details
and the use of concrete words. However, imagery is only one of the many ways
that a poem can relate the poet’s experience to us.
Chapter Five (Metaphor, Personification and Metonymy
in Poetry)
The next three chapters will present
various poetic devices called figurative language. When we use language
according to its standard usage, we are said to be using literal language. However, if we use language in order to
achieve a special effect, we are using figurative
language.
In this chapter, we will be looking
at three figures of
speech: metaphor,
personification, and metonymy. Metaphors compare objects that are dissimilar.
If the comparison is expressed, that is, the words “like” or “as” are used,
then the comparison is called a simile. For an example: “I’m as hungry as a bear.” Notice
that you are comparing yourself to a bear, at least the bear’s eating habits.
If the comparison is implied, then
the comparison is simply called a metaphor. If you say, “Life is a grand drama,” then you are implying that
life is like a play. The Lord Jesus Christ used metaphors quite often. The Lord
stated that He was the way, the truth, the life, the good shepherd, and the
door to name a few.
Personification is the attributing of human qualities to animals or
inanimate objects. In the poem, “To Autumn,” you may have noticed in stanza 2
that John Keats gives Autumn the ability to sit carelessly and to sleep in a
furrow. Keats personifies Autumn as a reaper of grain.
Metonymy is a term used for identifying one thing with
something that is closely related or associated with it. For an example, often
we hear that the White House made a statement today. Of course, the White House
did no such thing; but the White House is closely associated to the President
of the United States
and we understand that the president made a statement. In Ivanhoe, after receiving a message saying that king Richard
had left France, Prince John
states, “It is France’s
own hand and seal.” John means that the message came from the king of France.
Synecdoche is the describing of something with one of its parts.
Shakespeare in his play, Love’s
Labor’s Lost, speaks of the
cuckoo’s song as “unpleasing to a married ear.” Married ear refers to a married
man. Current usage of synecdoche is to include it with metonymy. Metaphor,
personification, and metonymy are related in that these figures of speech
involve comparisons.
Chapter Six (Symbol and
Allegory in Poetry)
A symbol is a word or set of words that represent a deeper
meaning than the literal meaning. We are familiar with many symbols in our
daily lives. We see the American flag as a symbol for freedom and liberty. We
understand the Cross to represent much more than a literal wooden cross. The
Cross is redemption and salvation to the believer. Whenever a sea captain saw
an approaching ship with the skull and crossbones on the “Jolly Roger,” he knew
his ship was in danger.
Symbols can be powerful and, when
used in poetry, can be very significant. What makes the symbol interesting is
its imprecision. It is this point that causes many readers to get sidetracked by
reading into a poem something that may not be there. Sometimes even the Bible
suffers from this “reading between the lines.” Once I heard a preacher state
that the five loaves and two fishes in Matthew chapter 14 were symbols for the
five doctrines of grace and the old and new testaments. After the service,
someone asked me whether I agreed with the symbolism. I stated that I did not
and then was prompted immediately to give my opinion. I merely stated, “I
believe that the five loaves represented five loaves of bread and the two
fishes, two fishes.” I grant that this is not as profound as the visiting
preacher’s explanation, but I do think it closer to the reading and that
nothing symbolical is intended.
Symbols can be allusive because the
symbol may be very general, and not specific. Sometimes we may not know exactly
what the poet meant specifically. While a multitude of meanings is not bad,
good sense is required. Poetry is about experience, and good poetry will allow
us to read into the poem our own experiences. But we are not at liberty to
imagine something that is not in the poem. It is very probable that the poet
did not use any words that are symbolic. Symbolism is only one devise that the
poet can use to create a great poem and a great poem can be created without
symbolism.
Allegory is a narrative when the characters and
settings represent not only themselves, but signify a secondary meaning as
well. The surface meaning of the story has its own independent interest, but
generally, the poet is more concerned about the meaning beneath the surface. Of
course, the best example of allegory is John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s
Progress.
Christian represents a fellow named Christian, but he also pictures every
Christian who is striving toward the Celestial
City. Allegory was very
popular during the Middle Ages and Renaissance.
Chapter Seven (Paradox
and Irony in Poetry)
As a statement, a paradox appears to be self-contradictory or even absurd, but
actually has a valid meaning. You will fine examples of paradox in almost every
work, but the metaphysical poets used the paradox as a focal point. Perhaps of
the best-known paradox in literature occurs in the last line of John Donne’s
“Death, Be Not Proud.” After humiliating Death by humanizing him, Donne tells
Death, “One short sleep past, we wake eternally, / And death shall be no more;
death, thou shalt die.” The paradox is that this dreaded thing called death
will die itself.
The oxymoron is a special kind of paradox. An oxymoron
is formed whenever two words that are contrary in normal usage are combined
together. Everyone has fun trying to make up or discovering examples of the
oxymoron; such as “jumbo shrimp” and “student athlete.” The master of the
oxymoron was William Shakespeare. In “Romeo and Juliet,” Romeo offers this example,
“O loving hate,
O anything, or nothing first created!
O heavy lightness, serious vanity,
Misshapen chaos of well-seeming forms,
Feather of lead, bright smoke, cold fire,
sick health,
Still-waking sleep, that is not what it
is!”
In “A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” Theseus
remarks about the choices for the evening’s entertainment,
“‘A tedious brief scene of young Pyramus,
And his love Thisby; very tragical mirth.’
Merry and tragical? Tedious and brief?
That is, hot ice and wondrous strange
snow.
How shall we find the concord of this discord?”
Irony has the sense of disguise, or
dissemblance. In their comedies, the Greek playwrights used a character who
acted to be less intelligent than he actually was. The eiron would outwit supposedly, brighter fellows,
because the eiron could
circumvent the other characters who were living under the delusion of the eiron’s lack of intelligence.
While there are several kinds of
irony, you will probably encounter only three within poetry: verbal irony, sarcasm, and invective. Verbal irony is an implied meaning that
is quite different from the expressed statement. Sarcasm is similar to verbal
irony, but is often reserved for ostentatious praise when actually scorn is
meant. Invective is a direct condemnation with the use of belittling remarks;
however, the intent is one of affection and friendship. In a sense, the poet who
employs irony is complimenting his readers by acknowledging their intelligence
to be smart enough by not being fooled with the expressed statements—but rather
that the readers possess the keen insight to understand the true meaning.
Two good examples of irony are found
in the Bible. Job makes a very memorable remark in Job 12:2—“No doubt but ye
are the people, and wisdom shall die with you.” The expressed meaning is that
Job’s friends embodied all of mankind and contained total wisdom. Of course,
Job does not believe this for a moment.
Even the Lord Jesus Christ was not
above using irony. After telling the parable about the unjust steward, the Lord
says, “And I say unto you, Make to yourselves friends of the mammon of
unrighteousness; that, when ye fail, they may receive you into everlasting
habitations” (Luke 16:9). The irony is clear. The Lord is emphasizing that one
should not waste his time by making friends with the unrighteous, since
unrighteous mammon will never befriend anyone who is “down on his luck,” much
less provide anyone with a perpetual dole.
In Pride and
Prejudice,
Jane Austin begins her novel with a delightful, ironic statement: “It is a
truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good
fortune, must be in want of a wife.” Of course, what is implied is that a
single women wants a wealthy man to marry.
In The Tragedy of
Julius Caesar,
Caesar is appreciative to Brutus, who gives him the time. Caesar states, “I
thank you for your pains and courtesy.” Caesar meant one thing; to the audience,
which knows that Caesar will soon be killed, the statement means something
entirely different.
Like symbolism, irony can be easily
misunderstood. If you see the statement, “You, poor fool,” you could have
several interpretations. One could be derogatory; another could be sympathetic.
This only points out again that you must read poetry very carefully in order to
understand any poem well.
Chapter Eight (Allusion
in Poetry)
An allusion
is a brief reference to
a person, place or event, or to another work of literature, generally the Bible
or Greek mythology. Anyone who reads the Bible often will not have as much
difficulty with many allusions that poets use from the Scriptures. Also, the
chief reason for studying Greek mythology is to have a better foundation to
understand the allusions found in literature and poetry.
The wonderful thing about allusions
is that the poet can economize. A reference to another work of literature can
pack a lot of meaning in a few words. For an example, this story is told about
Samuel Johnson, the best known author of the late 18th century. One night while walking home,
Johnson found a drunken harlot asleep on the street. Feeling compassion for
her, Johnson learned where she lived, lifted her upon his shoulders, and
carried her to her home. The audience reacted negatively to the story, since
the ladies and gentlemen refused to believe that the great Samuel Johnson could
ever do such a thing, and began to voice their disapproval. The speaker, William
Hazlitt, replied, “I remind you, ladies and gentlemen, of the parable of the
Good Samaritan.” All opposition ceased.
Hazlitt did not have to quote or
even paraphrase the passage found in Luke chapter 10. Like most people, the
audience was familiar enough with the story about the Good Samaritan that the men
and women realized that Johnson was only following the example found in the
Bible. While economy of words is the chief use of allusion, a good allusion can
evoke strong emotions and allows the reader to connect the poet’s meaning
himself. Like works that have irony, a poem that has an allusion is for the
reader who is above average in intelligence with a good education. Sometimes, a
poet like John Milton really tests the reader’s ability concerning the
recognition of allusions. When you read Paradise Lost, you will know what I am talking about.
The poet is complimenting the reader since he is certain that you will
understand the allusion without telling you the connection. Nevertheless, as a
young student, you must be willing to look up many allusions that you do not
understand, much in the same way you would with a new word in a dictionary.
Chapter Nine (Tone
in Poetry)
Generally speaking, tone is the speaker’s attitude to his listeners. In
everyday speech, we use tone to express ourselves. The same sentence can have
different meanings when used with tone. If you were to win a trip to Hawaii, you could be
very excited about it: “This is great! I won a trip to Hawaii!” On the other hand, what if you
already had plans to go to Europe, and the trip to Hawaii was scheduled for the same time. Your
enthusiasm would be greatly diminished and your voice would reflect a hint of
disappointment: “Oh, no. I won a trip to Hawaii.”
What if you have been to Hawaii
many times and do not care to see the islands again? Your winning the trip
would be very nonchalant. “That’s just great. I won a trip to Hawaii.”
The tone of a work can represent a
host of emotions or feelings: loving or angry, obscure or plain, formal or
informal, condescending or fawning. Discovering the tone of a poem is important
because it is necessary for complete understanding. If you read a poem that is
meant to be humorous, but you read it as being serious, then you will have an
enormous misunderstanding of the meaning. However, discovering the tone is more
difficult than with speech. We simply do not have the inflection of the voice
to help us to know the tone. What helps us to determine the tone is the sum of
all of the other elements that make up the poem: figurative language, irony,
rhythm and other devises. In short, the tone of the poem is not a separate
means used in the poem, but rather is the end itself.
Md. Saiful Alam
B. A. Honours & M. A. in English
Mobile: +8801715-712984
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